The growth in bond issues in Australia Essay Example for Free

The growth in nonplus issues in Australia EssayThe stock of Commonwealth government Securities go rapidly in 1990 and peaked in 1997 and it the fell existed and continued till 2003. If the fall continued it would be harmful to the financial food market and thusly the regime announced the it would maintain the viability of the CGS market. At present the value of such(prenominal) bonds exceeds $300 billion. The bonds in Australia in the market represented by Non-CGS and Semi outlet. The nervous strain of such $300 billion, which is more than 3 times of stock of CGS and Semis. In Australia, the government and non-government sectors issuing the bonds in order to raise the capital.The investors interior(prenominal) or offshore markets atomic number 18 attracted with the issue of bonds, since the bonds provide secured amount with regular coupon payment for entire life of the bond. The minimum investment in bond is $500,000. For the domestic issue, the commonwealth bank was r anked in number one in the issue of bonds for 2004. It offered fixed and floating rate debt securities. GOVERNMENT During 1990s, the domestic market hold in to government borrowers. There is a trend to issue of bonds by financial and non-financial borrowers occasionally issued the bonds into the domestic market only.But since past decade, the corporate bond market in Australia expanded rapidly. The non-government bonds equivalent to 25% GDP. Due to such increase the government bond outstanding fallen. It is an automatic incident since the non-government bonds increasing rapidly as they are capturing the offshore market. During 1990 the Australian government issued the bonds less than $50 billion and even up to 2005 it was continued with $50 billion. During 1995 to 1999 the bond issue was gone up to $100 billion. But the government want to be stable the issue of the bonds and to maintain $50 billion.It is a good sign to the governments chance because the issue of bonds indicates th e debt ness of the organization. Due to stability of the issue of the bonds, the image of the government will be change magnitude. STATE GOVERNMENTS In Australia, the State Governments also issuing the bonds and they are also mainlining the Australian governments policy by maintaining that the debt issue i. e. bonds issue should not be more than $50 AUD billions. Since it is the government policy, they cannot issue more than $50 billion. The state government issues bonds called as Semi Government bonds.These are issued via State governments other than Federal Government. The credit rating varies for every state and hence normally in that location may be higher rate than commonwealth Government bonds. NON-GOVERNMENT BONDS The banks started to provide more housing loans and it reflected to fall mortgage rates overdue to lower ostentation and increased competition. Of course due to good economic conditions. The banks also diversified its funds to other markets through the local and offshore issuance of bonds and asset-backed securities.With this effect, the non financial corporate increased their borrowing from banks, besides issue of their own bonds. Issue of bonds in such small country leads to beneficial, shift to low inflation and caused to issue of demand for fixed interest bonds. Issue of non-government bonds can be termed as Australian cliquish sector. The issue of such bonds relates to domestic and offshore market. The private is institutions represented by financial institutions, predominant banks. They issued the bonds into offshore markets more than 80% of their total bonds.The issue of bonds in offshore market is rapidly developed from 1990 and at present the outstanding is $350 billions whereas the domestic market i. e. onshore market captures only $200 billion. KANGAROO BONDS It is an Australian dollar-denominated bond issued by a non-Australian entity in the Australian market. It is a bond issued by the foreign entity in Australia. The Kangaro o bonds are also long term debt security issued by the non-residents in the Australian domestic market. Kangaroo bonds play the major role in non-government bond market.During 2003-2004, with the issue of kangaroo bonds, the level of non-government bonds raised from $1. 8 billion to $15. 2 billion. Almost most of 70 percent of this amount contributed by the residents of Australia. The main reason for such contribution in Kangaroo bonds is since the government of Australia reduced the debt security. During that time the government has budget surpluses. Moreover the Australian government encouraged the privatization of any(prenominal) of public departments, which caused the privatization proceeds received. The most of the privatization proceeds and budget surpluses used for repaying the debt.Therefore government stopped to issue the bonds. Under this juncture, the kangaroo bonds were released and rapid growth is inevitable for kangaroo bonds. During that period, since there is other alternative, as the government is not issuing the bonds and highly credit rating given for Kangaroo bonds, Australian investors supposed to get Kangaroo bonds. FLOW OF FUNDS The non-government bonds increased significantly while the Treasury bonds declined. The Flow of funds represented by the non-government bonds, State Government and Commonwealth Government.The importance of bonds credibly increased since 1990 and the Commonwealth Government maintained such level, which is not, exceeded more than 60 billion dollars. The bond category increased since the bonds between money market securities and shares with strong guarantee, though it provides lower yield. thence the flow of funds in the Australia rapidly increased with the cause of issue of bond securities. Since the investors seeking to avoid the losses of share prices, they shifted their platform to the bonds category. CONCLUSIONSince the Australian government maintaining such policy not to issue more than $50 billion, it is i nevitable to the other institutions to issue the bonds to get the funds. The domestic market is not having such funds, naturally the financial institutions, banks and other companies started to get the funds through offshore markets by issuing of funds. Due to increase of role by the non-government sector, the government bond out standings fallen as the budget surpluses available to both Central and State Governments. Consequently the role of non-government bonds has increased to become large segment in the Australian bond market.

Tchaikovsky’s “1812 Overture” Essay Example for Free

Tchaikovskys 1812 Overture EssayThe concert that I chose to review was an online performance of Tchaikovskys 1812 Overture. This betterment is the final examinatione to his Symphony No. 5. The piece that I chose was performed by the Berlin Philharmonic on October 9, 2008 and conducted by Seiji Ozawa. Ozawa has conducted orchestras in Germany, Austria, France and many opposite countries. He holds the distinction of being, the first recipient of Japans Inouye Shorecognizing lifetime achievement in the arts (Seiji Ozawa managing director). The 1812 Overture has activatements that render become famous and have been used in movies and on television, but the dents of it that have been used in these places dont convey the whole feeling of the attack. The 1812 Overture as a whole is a moving piece because it combines elements of music to uniquely convey emotion.The overture begins adagio, with the strings playing in a very legato style. The notes ar smoothly combined with a sli ght tremolo to them to evoke emotion. The woodwinds enter next, with the flutes have legato in accompaniment to the strings. Ozawa conducts with his whole body and his arms seem to move in the same way that he wants to listener to feel the music. The tone of the piece changes when the percussion enters espressivo and joins the wind pawns and the strings.The piece begins to accelerate when the percussion instruments begin to play. An hautbois solo contrasts with the percussions vibrato. The introduction of the percussion makes the whole orchestra play faster and much allegro. As the hardihood and percussion instruments increase in revivify and volume the entire orchestra plays forte and with force. At ab bring out four minutes into the overture as the overture becomes more and more allegro t present is a section that echoes the drum section of the overture that has become so famous that will be played later. This opens up a section of grandioso style with all instruments playi ng forte and allegro, giving the overture an overall lively and quickly moving feeling.There is an interlude that follows this quick movement of the overture. The strings are featured in this movement and the whole movement is played softer, more adagio and with several glissando sections from the stringed and wind instruments to calm the overture down. Here an oboist and flautist apiece perform a cavatina, a short solo that is part of the larger piece the orchestra is playing. Their solo parts echo the orchestra but also compliment it. From here the overture returns to a vivace tone and all sections play briskly, lively and fast. The timpani accompanies this fast pace with several forte, brisk notes. Ozawa moves the orchestra easily through the overtures theme and the adagio sections seem to blend easily with the vivace movements and make the overture feel whole and vibrant.There is a wind instrument section shortly after the timpani that leads into the forte, grande finale of the overture that has become so popular. This section features the flutes and clarinets playing a very fast and repetitive section. When I listened to this section I felt that the whole energy of the overture was accelerating. This was accompanied by timpani and percussion making the movement more forceful and forte. The overture continues to build and accelerate in volume and pace as it reaches its finale. As the strings speed up the brass section joins them to make the movement more forceful. The percussion joins in with bells that seem almost dissonant to the other instruments.This feeling of semi-dissonance is because the other sections are all playing fast, repetitive fifth note tremolo progressions enchantment the bells seem to be playing almost at random. The bells didnt quite seem to fit with the rhythm of the other instruments at this point to me, but as the movement progressed towards the finale I understood how the bells fit in to the whole piece. The bells play in a simila r tone as the other instruments, so even though they are playing in a completely different time signature they dont seem completely out of place. I enjoyed watching the bells being played during this section also because the bells used are so large they were almost the size of the man playing them. This somehow made them seem even more powerful and forceful when they were being played. As the movement progresses it slows down briefly once more, becoming slightly more adagio but the bells dont stop. The bells continue to play and act as a bridge to bring the other sections into the grande finale section.In the final moments of the overture the percussion and brass sections seem to take over. The whole finale is played very grande, with all of the instrumental sections combining to give the overture a very big, encompassing feel. In the performance notes for a performance by the Burgess Hill Symphony Orchestra, Sonia Hill describes the overture as, a festive and superpatriotic piece to immortalize Napoleons defeat and celebrate the liberation of the Russians (Hill) and this final movement illustrates that inspiration. Ozawas body language changes during this final movement also, and he begins to move as quickly and forcefully as he wants the orchestra to play. If the other instrumental sections were not playing as forte as they are, the percussion section would probably drown them out.The end is punctuated by many staccato sections from the brass instruments that echo the forte notes by the percussion section. This is then contrasted right afterwards by longer, smoother notes from the woodwind section. The reason the end of the overture is so memorable and powerful is because of that contrast between the forte percussion playing huge, booming notes, the brass playing staccato and vivace, and the wind sections providing tremolo sections that accompany them.The final moments and notes of the finale feature rolling sequences by the timpani. These rolls seem to si gnal that the overture is ending, but they also work to the grande tone that is meant to leave a lasting impression on the listener. The pace of the orchestra slows down from the frantic pace a few seconds ago and here the strings play forte but smoothly, bringing all the sections of the orchestra together and also signalling the end of the overture. The overture ends with each listener remembering the power of that final movement. kit and boodle CitedOverture 1812. YouTube. May 29 2010. http//www.youtube.com/watch?v=blroZTvCOMQfeature=relatedRepertoire 1812 Overture. The Burgess Hill Symphony Orchestra. May 2004. May 28 2010. http//www.bhso.org.uk/repert-173-Tchaikovsky-1812-Overture-Op-49.htmSeiji Ozawa Conductor. Welcome to the World of the Bach Cantatas. 12 January 2010. May 28 2010. http//www.bach-cantatas.com/Bio/Ozawa-Seiji.htm

My Country India Essay Example for Free

My Country India EssayIndia, officially the Republic of India (Bharat Ganrajya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country with over 1. 2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian sea on the south- double-u, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land banks with Pakistan to the west China,Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives in addition, Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia. Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for a lot of its long history. Four world religionsHinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhismoriginated here, whereas Zoroa strianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and likewise helped shape the regions diverse culture.Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a engagement for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi. The Indian economy is the worlds tenth-largest by nominal GDP and third-largest by purchasing power comparison (PPP). Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the fastest-growing major economies it is considered a newly industrialised country.However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, illiteracy, corruption, malnutrition, inadequate public healthcare, and terrorism. A nuclear weapons stateand a regional power, it has the third-largest standing army in the world and ranks seventh in mili tary expenditure among nations. India is a federal constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system consisting of 28 states and 7 union territories. India is a pluralistic, multilingual, andmulti-ethnic society. It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent and lies atop the minor Indian tectonic plate, which in turn gets to the Indo-Australian Plate. Indias defining geological processes commenced 75 million years ago when the Indian subcontinent, then offset of the southern supercontinent tGondwana, began a north-eastward drift across the then-unformed Indian Ocean that lasted fifty million years. The subcontinents subsequent collision with, and subduction under, the Eurasian Plate bore aloft the planets highest mountains, the Himalayas.They frame in India in the north and thenorth-east. In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast t rough that has gradually change with river-borne sediment it now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain. To the west lies the Thar Desert, which is cut off by the Aravalli Range. The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India, which is the oldest and geologically most stable fail of India it extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India.These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats114 the tableland contains the nations oldest rock formations, some of them over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6 44 and 35 30 north latitude and 68 7 and 97 25 east longitude.The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind Kedarnath Temple, which is one of t he twelve jyotirlinga shrines. Indias coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains. According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following 43% sandy beaches 11% rocky shores, including cliffs and 46% mudflats or wet shores.Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi the latters extremely low gradient often leads to painful floods and course changes. Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India the latter is shared with Bangladesh. India has two archipelagos the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off Indias south-western coast and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea. The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and wintermonsoons.The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, tutelage the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, bring home the bacon the majority of Indias rainfall. Four major climatic groupings predominate in India tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane. Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years. During the Vedic geological period (c. 700500 BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dharma, karma, yoga, and mok? ha, were established. India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nations major religions. The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by divers(a) historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads, the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement, and by Buddhist philosophy.Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles. Vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavours. Vastu shastra, literally science of construction or architecture and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan, explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings it employs preci se geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceive cosmic constructs. As applied in Hindu emple architecture, it is influenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the absolute. The Taj Mahal, create inAgra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the worlds heritage. Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.

Renal Excretion of Paracetamol | Experiment

Renal Excretion of Paracetamol ExperimentParacetamol, known as acetaminophen in the USA, is one of the most commonly employ analgesic and antipyretic drugs available over-the-counter. Its common name derives from the full chemical name para-acetyl-amino-phenol, with the chemical formula C8H9NO2and a molecular weight of 151.17.Paracetamol does not arrive at any significant anti-inflammatory action and at that placefore cannot be accurately described as a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), as was once thought. Its utensil of action is sedate poorly understood but both(prenominal) studies adopt suggested that it inhibits a variant of the cyclo-oxygenase enzyme COX-1, which has been designated COX-3 (Swierkosz et al., 2002). Paracetamol acts mainly in the central nervous system and endothelial stalls, rather than in platelets and immune cells. Boutaud and colleagues (2002) hypothesised that this may be explained by the high levels of peroxides found in the latter ce ll types, which inhibit the action of paracetamol. There has been some debate on the subject, with other researchers proposing an inhibitory action against COX-2 (Graham Scott, 2005). Further research is required to fully elucidate the mechanism of action at the molecular level.Following oral administration and absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, paracetamol enters the blood and is distributed throughout the body. It is metabolised by enzymes in the hepatocytes of the liver and the majority is converted to inactive metabolites by brotherhood with sulphate or glucuronide. This is then filtered out of the blood by the kidneys and into the peeing, via active renal tubular secretion. A small portion of paracetamol remains unaltered and passes into the urine via glomerular filtration and passive absorption (Morris Levy, 1984). There is also a small proportion of the paracetamol that is metabolised by the cytochrome P450 system, which results in the formation of cysteine or g lutathione conjugates and mercapturic unpleasant conjugates. These products of oxidative metamorphosis are also slip byd renally (Andrews et al. 1976).Paracetamol has a low therapeutic index, so the therapeutic dose is very close to the unhealthful dose. Toxicity can occur next a single large dose (10g) or with chronic lower doses (4-5g/d) and is usually seen as hepatotoxicity, which can result in death within some(prenominal) days (Wikipedia).Toxicity occurs when the enzymes responsible for catalysing sulphate and glucuronide conjugation become saturated, forcing metabolism to be increasingly dependent upon the cytochrome P450 system. This results in formation of a toxic metabolite, N-acetyl-p-benzo-quinone imine (NAPQI), which is usually mopped up by binding to the sulphydryl group of glutathione to form inactive conjugates and mercapturic acid. Toxicity occurs when the glutathione supply becomes exhausted and NAPQI binds indiscriminately to molecules within the cell, such as membranes, to cause cell impairment and death, seen as acute hepatic necrosis.Major pathway for normal metabolismMinor pathway via cytochrome P450 system produces toxic metabolite (NAPQI), shown in red. Normally this is detoxified by binding to glutathione.Toxicity occurs when pathways 1 and 2 are overloaded and NAPQI binds to molecules of the cell, causing damage.Modified from Rang et al. 1995.The aim of this experiment is to investigate the renal excreta of paracetamol, by measuring the levels of paracetamol metabolites in human urine over 6 hours following an oral dose of 500mg. The arrive excretion will be assessed using the spectrophotometric method. From this data the extermination rate constant (KE) and the half-life (T1/2) will be calculated. Qualitative analysis of the various metabolites will be conducted using appropriate chemical identification techniques.method actingA standard stock closure of paracetamol was prepared at 1mg/cm3 and dilutions were made to giv e a range of known concentrations. 1 cm3 of the paracetamol solution was added to 1 cm3 asinine urine and 4 cm3 4M HCl, and mixed thoroughly. A blank duplicate was also prepared, using water instead of urine. After an hour in a simmering water bath the tubes were cooled and water added, up to 10 cm3. 1 cm3 of this hydrolysed urine solution was added to 10 cm3of colour forming solution, mixed and allowed to stand for 40 minutes. The absorbance of each solution was measured, using the spectrophotometer, zeroing the instrument using the drug free urine sample in between solutions. This produced the readings for the calibration curve. The collected quantify urine samples were then bear on in the same way, adding 1 cm3 water instead of paracetamol solution.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONKnown concentrations of paracetamol underwent spectrophotometry to measure the absorbance at 620nm. These results were used to produce a calibration curve (figure 3). The timed urine samples were then analysed following the same protocol and the absorbance at 620nm was used, in conjunction with the calibration curve to ascertain the concentration of paracetamol in the urine. Unfortunately, half of the samples produced absorbances foreign the range of the calibration curve. Because this curve is non-linear, extrapolation and dilution cannot be used to accurately deduce the concentration of paracetamol in the urine. For the purposes of this report the concentration for these samples has been declared as greater than 800ug/cm3. This is not very satisfactory and further experiments must be done to extend the range of the calibration curve to the maximum absorbancy of the timed samples. The values of KE and T1/2 have been calculated to demonstrate the procedure, but are inaccurate and will need revising once accurate concentrations have been established form the calibration curve. panel 1Timed urine sampleMean absorbance 620nmConc. ug/cm3Vol. Urine (ml)Total drug (ug of paracetamol)Excretion rate mg/h0000001 hour0.25619224547040472 hours1.9188005040000403 hours1.769800383040030.44 hours1.0288005544000445 hours0.3492461353321033.26 hours0.2551921603072030.7Table 1 contains the absorbance results of the timed urine samples and the deduced concentration of paracetamol in the urine, as well as the hourly excretion rate. The total metre of paracetamol excreted over the 6 hour period was 225.3mg, which is 45% of the orally administered dose. Due to problems discussed above, this is an underestimate of the true percentage of dose excreted renally, which has been found to be 55-70% by other studies (Steventon et al., 1996).When log of the excretion rate (equivalent to total drug excreted per hour) is plotted against time, a linear plot should be achieved, from which KE can be estimated. This is shown in grade 4, but is likely to need revising.The slope of this straight line equates to KE /2.303, which gives a value for KE of 0.094. Using the formula T1/2 =0.692/ KE , the val ue of T1/2 = 7.36 hours.This states that it takes the body 7.36 hours to excrete half of the drug administered. This is longer than the 1-4 hours usually quoted for paracetamol (Rang et al. 1995), and is not surprising given the underestimation of the paracetamol urine concentration. With proper calibration, this would be expected to decrease to nearer the antecedently found results.There were no results for the qualitative studies for metabolite composition, but it would be expected that sulphate and glucuronide conjugates would constitute the majority of the sample, with a smaller quantity of unchanged paracetamol, cysteine/glutathione and mercapturic acid metabolites.These results only represent one individual on one day and replications of this experiment are crucial. Nutritional status, recent alcohol consumption, ethnic background, concurrent drug usage and illness must all be taken into account as factors that may affect paracetamol metabolism and excretion (Riordan Williams , 2002, Patel Tang, 1992).Further analysis of paracetamol excretionHepatotoxicity and drug interactionsTable 2 shows how concurrent use of phenobarbital, an anti-epileptic drug, can increase the severity of liver damage caused by paracetamol administration and its subsequent metabolism.Table 2 Effect of Phenobarbital on paracetamol induced hepatotoxicityTreatment Dose of Paracetamol (mg/kg) Severity of liver necrosisNone3751-2+Phenobarbital3752-4+_________This occurs due to metabolism of phenobarbital by enzymes of the P450 cytochrome system, which results in upregulation of their production. As explained in the introduction (see fig. 2), P450 enzymes also metabolise paracetamol, to form the toxic metabolite NAPQI. This is normally a minor pathway but as the amount of P450 enzymes available increases, the bodily function of this pathway also increases. This results in a larger than normal amount of NAPQI, which is mopped up and inactivated by glutathione. Glutathione supplies will eventually run out, which occurs sooner if the person is malnourished. When this happens the toxic metabolite binds to cell components, causing necrosis. To prevent this occurring, such as in cases of overdose, N-acetylcysteine can be given (Routledge et al., 1998), which is required for glutathione synthesis and helps to boost it. This allows a greater amount of the toxic metabolite to be mopped up and reduces cell damage.Paracetamol metabolism following hepatotoxicityTable 3Plasma paracetamolconcentrations (ug/cm3)PatientsPlasmaparacetamol4 hrs after12hrs afterHalf life (h)ingestioningestion_______________________________________________________________no liver damage (18)2.9 +/= 0.3163 +/=20 29.5 +/=6liver damage (23) 7.2+/= 0.7296 +/= 26 124 +/=22___Table 3 shows that, in a study, the ability of patients with liver damage to eliminate paracetamol from the blood is often decreased, compared to healthy people. This is seen by the prolonged half-life and the high levels of parace tamol in the plasma. The plasma level does come down by 12 hrs, which indicates that there is enough operational liver reserve to metabolise some of the drug, but the level is still very high. To ascertain whether it is just conjugation that is change, or whether all the pathways are affected equally it would be necessary to quantify the levels of different metabolites in the blood and urine. As conjugation is responsible for the majority of metabolism, damage to all systems will still show up as affecting conjugation the most.In theory reduced clearance of a substance is useful for monitoring the severity of liver damage, but in the case of paracetamol it would be unwise as it could potentiate the hepatotoxic effects and worsen the liver condition. It is also unnecessary as there are already a number of reliable blood tests for liver function and damage.REFERENCESAndrews, R. S., Bond, C. C., Burnett, J., Saunders, A. Watson, K. 1976 Isolation and identification of paracetamol me tabolites. J Int Med Res 4, 34-9.Boutaud, O., Aronoff, D. M., Richardson, J. H., Marnett, L. J. Oates, J. A. 2002 Determinants of the cellular specificity of acetaminophen as an inhibitor of prostaglandin H(2) synthases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99, 7130-5.Graham, G. G. Scott, K. F. 2005 Mechanism of action of paracetamol. Am J Ther 12, 46-55.Morris, M. E. Levy, G. 1984 Renal clearance and serum protein binding of acetaminophen and its major conjugates in humans. J Pharm Sci 73, 1038-41.Patel, M., Tang, B. K. Kalow, W. 1992 Variability of acetaminophen metabolism in Caucasians and Orientals. Pharmacogenetics 2, 38-45.Rang, H. P., Dale, M.M., Ritter, J.M. 1995 Pharmacology Churchill Livingstone.Riordan, S. M. Williams, R. 2002 Alcohol exposure and paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity. Addict Biol 7, 191-206.Routledge, P., Vale, J. A., Bateman, D. N., Johnston, G. D., Jones, A., Judd, A., Thomas, S., Volans, G., Prescott, L. F. Proudfoot, A. 1998 Paracetamol (acetaminophen) poison ing. No need to change current guidelines to accident departments. Bmj 317, 1609-10.Steventon, G. B., Mitchell, S. C. Waring, R. H. 1996 Human metabolism of paracetamol (acetaminophen) at different dose levels. Drug Metabol Drug Interact 13, 111-7.Swierkosz, T. A., Jordan, L., McBride, M., McGough, K., Devlin, J. Botting, R. M. 2002 Actions of paracetamol on cyclooxygenases in tissue and cell homogenates of mouse and rabbit. Med Sci Monit 8, BR496-503.Wikipedia. http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracetamol.

Nigerian Construction Industry Performance

Nigerian Construction Industry PerformanceChapter Two of this investigate comprises a comprehensive f on the whole over of literature relating to the Nigerian construction manufacture and its motion, Value counseling and its application in the construction fabrication. It is observe that much of the literature relating to Nigeria is dated, however this end hardly add to the apprise and relevance of primary data collected in this research and it provides a background and historic basis from which progress in the persistence may be measured.2.1 THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRYThe construction labor the world over is often perceived to be the life wire of its respective economic system as it cuts across all aspects of human activities (Ayangade, 2009) and the Nigerian construction industriousness is non an exception to this. Its contribution ranges from enabling the procural of goods and services to the provision of expressions and other infrastructure, on that pointby provi ding employment opportunities to its labour force while contributing immensely to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). According to Ayangade (2009), the contribution of the Nigerian construction industry is yet to measure up to those of the western world like the UK and Australia due to its developing nature among other reasons discussed under. As noted by the same detective (Ayangade, 2009), whereas the construction industries of other developed countries are responsible for nigh 22% of their respective GDPs, the Nigerian case is distinct as it contributes slightly below 16% to its economy. However, this could be said to be complemented by the comparatively higher employment (20%) it provides for its whooping 140 million citizens compared to the 12% as in the case of developed countries. Mbamali (2004) attributed this to relatively lower use of mechanization within construction in Nigeria and the high dependency of the Nigerian economy on the oil sector. Obiegbu (2005) noted that the construction industry, strange other sectors, is a complex one and requires articulate professionals who are ready to live up to its lymph glands expectations. Clients in the construction industry may either be private individuals including corporate bodies or public organisations which include the government. In Nigeria the federal government is often seen to be involved in the or so complex proposals with abtaboo 38.4% of the market (Ayangade, 2005). This is followed by the state government which is responsible for about 19.2% of the shows in the industry, though there is still some form of partnering mingled with different classes of clients. The players in the industry are a disparate convocation of individuals often assembled into temporary groups and may comprise of quantity surveyors, architects, Engineers, Estate surveyors Valuers, send passenger vehicles, contractors and sub-contractors, suppliers, labourers and artisans.Activities in the construction indust ry are carried out on a project basis and could be within an organisation or part of a programme (..reference). The be sick watchfulness Institute (PMI) (2004) be a project as a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service or result. The product, in the background of the construction industry, may be a building, services installation or other infrastructural project. Hence the relevant mix of professionals is often assembled together with the aim of achieving this goal. This group of professionals is expected to possess the relevant skills, knowledge, tools and proficiencys to touch the project goals. The application of these variables, skills, knowledge, tools and proficiencys, with the aim achieving the required objective is referred to as project commission (PMI, 2004). According to Obiegbu (2005), the contractual procural strategy, which he defined as a basis for clients action in defining the procedure to be followed from the inception of the project to handover, plays an important role in the performance of the industry. Some of the contractual arrangements which are often referred to as procurement routes may include, but are not limited to, the interestTraditional procurement routeDesign and buildManagement contracts2.1.1 Nature and Performance of the Nigerian Construction Industrythe economic resources often wasted in exist and cadence overruns, substandard work and shoddy workmanship, client-contractor-practitioners acrimonious relationships and non-performance of projects as envisaged by clients and end usersOlatunje (2009)The supra quote highlights the perception of the Nigerian construction industry presented by Olatunje (2009) highlights issues researched by other authors such as cost and time overruns (Aniekwu and Okpala, 1998, Oyedele Tham, 2007, Dlakwa Culpin, 1990), project abandonment (Sonuga et al, 2002, Adams, 1997) and both client and contractor dissatisfaction (Olatunje, 2009). The quote to a fault echoes findings from Egans (1998) research into the UK construction industry. The Egan tangible composition has been formative in the UK construction industry but too for the Nigerian industry, which is fashioned after the UKs (Mbamali, et al., 2005, Oyedele Tham, 2007).The Nigerian construction industry has similar contractual arrangements as the industry in Britain which has been found to be more unsuitable for developing industries like Nigeria than it is for its own industry (Edmonds Miles, 1983, Sonuga et al, 2002). The most common procurement route use in the Nigerian construction industry is the traditional route (Ayangade, 2009). This implies that much risk is placed on the Architect to be bring in the project as he is left to advise, organise and lead other project consultants to conceive and develop the project design. This procurement route has faced a lot of criticism including the breakup of the design stage from actual construction. Wells (1986) found that the divorce of design from construction and the use of competitive tendering, which is establish on lowest cost, are noted constraints that affect the performance of the Nigerian construction industry. Aniekwu and Okpala (1988) referred to these as systemic issues in the industry which result from the application of contractual arrangements unsuited to the Nigerian industry. Some of these issues may be accommodated by appropriate conditions of contract but these factors are considered to be withholding the ontogenesis of the industry. Aniekwu and Okpala (1988) also identified some of the structural issues affecting the industry to include access to finance and lack of proper communication among consultants, contractors and the client at the too soon stages the project and during construction. Oyodele and Tham (2005) noted that lack of proper communication in the industry, boosted by its high level of fragmentation, has left it awash it with delay, cost and time overruns in addition to the dis turbing rate of fluctuation in the determines of materials offered by the economy. The findings of the build Research Establishment associated more than 50% of the construction defects with mistakes in project drawings and documentation due to inad mate interaction among the project professionals. This is in line with the testimonial of the National Economic Development Office (1987) on the select for more accurate designs in the industry as this is responsible for nearly two-thirds of poor tone work in the industry.2.1.2 Project Management in the Nigerian Construction IndustryOdusemi et al, (2003) found that Project Management is still in its early stages of development in the Nigerian construction industry. The service is offered but only alongside other consultancy services. This is not assisted by the fact that PM is learned experientially and is not represented by established professional bodies, although many consultants are members of the Association of Project Managemen t (APM) and the Project Management Institute (PMI). This has left the industry essay with the challenges of satisfying the needs of its clients and the public as a whole. As noted by Oyodale and Tham (2005), the complexities presented by the industry can only be tackled by its professionals. Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) reason out that, considering the contribution of the construction industry to its nations economy, improved services in the form of greater efficiency and timeliness would certainly yield a positive impact. The research called on the need for innovative research that will improve care skills and ability, buildability, design quality, integration and communication and client focus so as to deliver value for silver.2.2 VALUE MANAGEMENT2.2.1 Value ConceptHistorically, value is viewed from an economic perspective, hence its expression as a ratio of be to benefits (Kelly et al, 2004). The concept of value is based on the relationship between satisfying needs and the exp ectations and the resources required to achieve them (British Standard, 2000). The above statement implies that for value to be correctly defined there ought to be some needs that are desired to be satisfied which are then weighed against the required and available resources to achieve them. This however does not equate decreased cost to enhanced value. For instance, as illustrated in figure 2.1 below, a project manager may decide to commit more resources in the short-change run (which would obviously increase cost) with an intention of increasing his revenue (improved value) in the long run. Value can thus be increased when the clients satisfaction increases and the cost in terms of resources either diminishes, or increases to a lesser extent (Tassinari (1985, p37). embodiment 2.1 showing the relationship between resources and customer satisfaction. (Adapted from British Standard, 2000)A need is that which is desired or necessary to perform a extra function and will differ depen ding on the nature of the client or the perspective from which it is defined (British Standard, 2000). This explains why value is often seen to be a subjective term (Thiry, 1997). According to Kelly et al (2004) producers and dealers may both view value as the price of a physical object while the consumers or users would see value from its performance perspective which changes with time. McGeorge and Palmer (2002) illustrate this using a modern home which has a little battery operated radio in addition to internet, phone, and television. Of course, the small radio would be perceived to have little or no value until a snow storm cuts the house off from the electric power supply which will render the radio as the only source of communication.The above workout by McGeorge and Palmer (2002) shows the effect time and innovation can have on a clients interpretation of value and how it can change establishn a particular situation. The small battery operated radio was initially of very hi gh value when it was the only available option but diminished with the invention and/or encyclopedism of internet, phone and television by the household. However its appreciation changed when the situation change. According to Zimmerman and Hart (1982) as cited in Thiry (1997), if a design has not changed in 18 years, the product is either excellent or management has failed to improve it. However one knows that neither of these two conditions mentioned in the above statement is obtainable in the present construction industry due to its highly competitive nature. Most times clients interpretation of value is when it meets or exceeds their expectations. Kelly and Male (2007) described this using the Kanos cast as shown in figure 2.3 below.Figure 2.2 Kanos Model, reproduced from Kelly and Male, 2007As shown on Kanos model above, there are three levels of satisfaction factors basic, performance and delighter, each having some effect on the quality characteristics including customers satisfaction. According to Kelly and Male (2007), Kanos model (figure 2.2) does not only portray the importance of achieving a clients immediate expectations from a project but also the need to go the extra mile to improve it beyond the clients expectations as this gives them a delighter satisfaction. The possible benefit from this is that projects would not become obsolete within a short period of its completion as its performance would still exceed the customers demand, thereby assuring the client of continued good value for his money. Kanos model also creates room for improved projects through innovative services and products as what was once a delighter over time goes down to basic and forms a baseline below which the client becomes dissatisfied. According to Harty (2009) one of the driving forces behind the value management concept is that it encourages innovation through research which is in line with the recommendations of Egan (1998) to improve the performance of the constru ction industry.2.2.2 Defining the Client Value SystemClients in the construction industry have been described as a heterogeneous group make up of private or public organisations operating in different environments with diverse reasons for their existence (Kelly et al 2007). Some of these are multinational organisations competing at the global level who already have reputations to protect while some are small upcoming organisations who are still very much profit driven. Viewed from some other perspective, some of these clients are more experienced than others irrespective of their sizes or the sector in which they operate. It then follows that clients are unique in their own ways and have individual, respective requirements which determine their needs and hence what is of value to them. This is referred to as the client value system. Harmonizing and prioritizing these diverse views of stakeholders in a particular project at the project briefing stage sets the clients value system and ensures that value for money (VfM) is achieved, (OGC, 2007).The client value system is thus seen as a basis for making decisions as to the allocation and use of resources available for a project, thereby addressing the usual mismatch between the clients actual intent and his capability (Thiry, 1996). According to Kelly et al (2004, p157) one of the most important considerations of value management is the recognition of the uniqueness of each clients value system. This creates demand for the construction industry as it is focused on the customers by making univocal what value means to the each individual client. Sequel to this, Kelly et al (2004) identified some measurable criteria which form a typical construction client value system to include time, neat be, operating cost, environment, exchange, flexibility, esteem, comfort and politics.2.2.2.1 TimeRefers to the period from when the project was conceptualized to the period when it is completed and absorbed into the clients organisation. Often time is assessed on a continuum from when it is of essence to the point where it could be compromised (Kelly et al, 2004). For instance a project to build a sports bar for the 2010 world cup delivered just a day past the commencement of the tournament, may drastically affect its value. Hence it is necessary to determine what time means to the client.2.2.2.2 Capital expenditure (CAPEX)Are those costs associated with the capital cost of a project, measured on a continuum between the budget being considered tight and not able to be exceeded to there being flexibility in budgeting (Kelly et al 2004). obviously put, CAPEX is what it cost to put a project on ground, from inception to handover. However, Elinwa and Joshua (2001) stated that it is sometimes difficult to separate the capital costs of some projects from its operating costs due the platform on which it was procured. For example a primary health centre to be procured through PFI, it may not be so easy to pi n point the capital costs as it forms part of the total lease package.2.2.2.3 Operating expenditure (OPEX)Spending on construction projects is not one off expenditure as the building requires to be operated, maintained and repaired throughout the life span of the building. According to Kelly et al (2004), OPEX can be defined as those costs associated with operation and maintenance of a completed project as it becomes a part of the clients organization measured by the extent to which it is minimized to its point of being flexible. This depends on the use to which a building is being put to. For instance where the building is for residential purpose, the operating costs may include utilities, cleaning, repairs, maintenance, caretaker and security. This may be expanded to include photocopying and internet facilities and other office services for a commercial development.2.2.2.4 EnvironmentThis defines how important achieving an environmentally friendly project is to the client. Kelly e t al (2004) defined environment as the extent to which the project results in a sympathetic approach to its immediate and extended physical environments in terms of energy consumed in putting it up and in operating it. The yardstick here is the level to which the project complies with the Kyoto Agreement and Agenda 21 issues including other environmental regulations. This explains a clients interest in having a sustainable development which is resources conscious.2.2.2.5 Exchange or resaleThis refers to the monetary value of the project were it to be sold, rented or valued as part of an organisations assets. Where the project cannot be traded on the open market value or there is no intention to resell ab initio, this will be indicated in the organisations value system (Kelly et al, 2004). The continuum here is between the returns from the project being of importance to the returns being of not of much or no importance to the client.2.2.2.6 FlexibilityAs recommended by Egan (1998), t here is a need for construction projects to be at a par with improvements in technology and changes in market demand. Hence flexibility as a value criterion is the extent to which a project parameter has to reflect this ever changing environment at its design stage (Kelly et al 2004). For instance, the nature of the healthcare industry involves constant improvements in technology and hence healthcare facilities must be congenial with the incorporation of these changes. However, flexibility depends on the nature of the project and is measured between being very easy to change its function to being impossible.2.2.2.7 EsteemThis refers to the mensuration of immediate resources that a client wants to forgo for attributes like prestige, aesthetic and appearance rather than performance (Thiry, 1996). Some projects may not be viable based on other value criteria but of high value to the client on esteem grounds. For instance, some projects undertaken by some countries could be just aimed at creating awareness and putting the countrys name on the map as in the case of the worlds tallest building in Dubai.2.2.2.8 ComfortIn the context of a building this refers to the physical and psychological comfort of the building as a place for working and living with its influence on human performance (Kelly et al 2004). Simply put, it refers to the ease with which the project supports the melody carried out in it or other uses to which it is being put.2.2.2.9 PoliticsThis is external to projects and refers to the level of resources that the client wants to commit to the community, popularity and good dwell issues which often determines how important they are to him (Kelly and Male, 2007). This is measured by the motive to be popular with the local community or not having any concern with them at all.In a admit conducted to determine clients assessment of architects performance in Nigeria in terms of delivering value for money, Lukmon et al (2007), identified a set of 28 simi lar but correlated criteria which they grouped under quality of project, buildability, client focus and management skills.2.2.3 Historical Background of Value ManagementA project is defined as an undertaking aimed at achieving a specific objective usually measured in terms of performance, budget and schedule, (Morris and Hough 1987). Hence project is an investiture undertaken to add value to the core business of a client (Kelly et al, 2004). Value Management, as a management technique, offers the most logical approach to delivering VfM to clients (Shen and Liu 2003) Kelly and Male, 2007). Its strength may be attributed to its approach of identifying and/or verifying a clients value system among the relevant stakeholders at an early stage of the project, so that these may be reflected in the project design.According to Thiry (1996) the origins of VM can be traced back to the 1940s in what he described as more for less in the USA manufacturing industry. During demesne War II Lawrenc e Miles, an Engineer with General Electric, was faced with some strategic problems in producing some components which were easily produced in the past. As a way some this Miles, who before then has been dissatisfied with the cost of production in the industry, came to realise that most times circumstantial innovations result in better performance and reduced cost. This prompted Miles to ask what function does this component perform and how else can we perform that function (Dallas, 2006). Miles questions gave rise to the concept of function psychoanalysis which was aimed at identifying and analysing the intended functions to determine if the materials for the proposed solving can be substituted with less expensive ones. Not long after, people started to adopt the technique of focusing on the intended function not the suffice which soon developed into what is today referred to as Value Analysis (VA).In many cases people perceived the technique as a cost step-down technique at th e expense of improved functionality which is a total misconception of the technique (Kelly and Male, 1993). However, the technique was so successful that in less than 10 years it was adoptive in the US Department of Defence to deliver VfM and from then on other industries in the USA have adapted it for application at different phases of their projects. Value Management (VM) as it came to be called, refers to a organise management of the total value equation throughout all stages of the project (Kelly et al 2004). Figure 2.3 shows different stages and segments of the development of value management.Figure 2.3 The metamorphosis of Value Management, adapted from Dallas (2006)As illustrated in figure 2.3, Miles action in the 1940s was focused on getting alternative materials or components to perform the required function which was the beginning of value management. This was later perceived as a cost cutting technique before the adoption of a holistic structured approach to improving v alue (Kelly and Male, 1993).Following the development and positive impacts of value management in the US manufacturing sector, the technique was adopted into the US construction industry as a means of delivering VfM to its clients in the 1960s. Fong and Shen (2000) noted that VM was first introduced in the US construction industry in 1968 and its application in the Chinese construction industry is recorded to occur 10 years later (Shen and Liu, 2004). According to Kelly et al (2004), the value management technique was first used in the UK 30 years after it was introduced in the US manufacturing industry at the Xerox headquarters, an American company. From then on VM has grown to become widely accepted in different parts of the world as a logical means to achieve value for money (Fong, 2004 Kelly et al, 2004 Ellis et al, 2004) including in Africa (Bowen et al, 2008).2.2.4 Benefits of Value managementValue management is a proactive, problem solving service, which maximizes the functio nal value of a project through a structured team which makes explicit the clients value system and weights further decisions against the value system.(Kelly et al, 1998).VM aims to justify the place of a project in a clients organisation at an early stage and develops a strategic plan against which it is built on to deliver value for money. VM is often misconstrued to being a cost reduction exercise, hence seen to be synonymous with value engineering. According to Dallas (2006) cost reduction, which is an obvious output of a value management exercise, cannot after all be seen as its main motive. As illustrated in figure 2.4 below, VM incorporates value engineering and value analysis in its value definition exercise and so could be perceived to be a universal set for the three concepts.Figure 2.4 shows the relationship between Value Management, Value Engineering and Value Analysis, adapted from Connaughton and Green (1996)VM looks at a project from a holistic point of view (time, who le life cost and performance) in the context of its usage which properly fits in the definition of value for money (). Connaughton and Green (1996) identified the following benefits which a properly executed Value Management exercise can yieldThe need for the project is made explicit and verified by available data.The project objectives are identified and discussed openly to reach a consensus.Rational, explicit and measurable decisions are guaranteed after alternatives have been considered.Project designs are developed from the agreed framework, which are evaluated on the basis of the agreed performance criteria.thither is greater participation from stakeholders which guarantees their buy in.There is improved communication and teamwork spirit throughout the project.Improved innovation with better quality definition in the project.Unnecessary cost is eliminated which may lead to a reduction in cost.Properly executed, value management when employed at the early stages of a project can help eliminate unnecessary cost to the tune of 10% to 25% savings on the proposed capital cost of project (Ellis et al, 2004). This is considered to be reasonable compared to the actual cost of the VM exercise, which is estimated at about 0.5% to 1% of the projects cost (REF).2.3 coating OF VALUE MANAGEMENT IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRYAny construction project should be only commissioned following a careful analysis of needs since failure to think through project requirements will almost certainly cause problems for subsequent design and construction stages. For that reason, the Construction Industry age recommends that value management be incorporated as an integral part of the construction puzzle out (Baldwin 1998).The value management approach may differ between countries depending on the nature of their construction industry or the chosen procurement route in a particular project. However, this does not dispute the fact that the VM technique can be gainfully applied at any st age of a construction project, as clients/contractors are often faced with the challenge of finding an optimum balance between cost, time, quality and performance criteria (Fong 2004).In the UK, the USA, Australia and other countries where the value management technique is well established, VM is applied through a process referred to as the value management study (British Standard, 2000) or value management process (Kelly et al 1998) via a shop class approach facilitated by value manager or experienced team facilitator. A value management study, as defined in BS12947, involves the application of value management to a particular business case identified within a VM programme. Baldwin (1998, as cited in Kelly et al, 1998) noted that VM is not a question of brainstorming and problem solving, rather it requires a structured methodology in order to have the required outcome. Figure 2.5 overleaf depicts a simple VM study plan developed for the European Value Management standard (British Standard, 2000).Figure 2.5 shows a simple VM study plan, adapted from the British Standard (2000)The VM study plan represents a systematic approach to ensuring that appropriate techniques and skills are utilized in the value study. According to the British Standard (2000), as shown in the VM study plan above, a VM study should aim to achieve the following objectivesIdentify the objectives and targets the intended study is set to achieve as this may differ from the project objectives.Formulate the relevant approach needed to achieve the objectives, including team selection and training (where necessary).Identify the relevant functions which will lead to the achievement of the objectives.Identify some basis for measuring changes in performance and use of resources. delimitate targets for performance and use of resources for the above identified functions in a way peculiar to the organisations.Identify innovative ways of arriving at the targets through the application of the above meth ods.Evaluate the proposal for improvement.Implement the proposal which have been chosen by the decision makersMonitor and measure the outcomes in relation to the target.Feedback results for continuous improvement of VM programme.There are different approaches to value management studies in different countries with regards to team compositions and store procedure. For instance in the American construction industry, VM studies are typically carried out by an independent workshop team who will have to sell their ideas to the project team later on. This is different from the UK practice where the existing project team is fully involved in the study. In a benchmarking exercise carried by Kelly et al (1998), the use of an existing project team in conducting value management studies appeared to be the preferred approach due to the following advantages accruable to the projectCost of the study is relatively minimizedTime spent project briefing the study participants is reducedWaste of reso urces on previously considered but failed ideas are eliminatedOffers better opportunity for developing project teams during the workshopMore opportunity to explore all available optionsImplementation is more guaranteed as team members have already accepted ideas which they generated as a team, thereby reducing the development period.However, generic VM workshop strives to add value to a project by considering the project on its whole life basis. Kelly et al (1998) who were in support of this view identified the quintette key value opportunities at which VM technique can be employed to include pre-brief workshop, proper workshop, sketch design workshop, final working design and murder workshop.2.3.1 Pre-brief workshopThe Value Manager or Facilitator meets with the project sponsor/client to clarify the place of the project in his organisation or programme. This will give the two parties a better discovering of the functional expectations of the project so as to help form a basis fo r the project briefing workshop and the clients value system. This may yield solution/s to the clients problem, for example, whether a new building is needed or renovation of existing one will achieve the same objectives.2.3.2 Proper workshopProceeds from the identified solution in the pre-brief phase and aims to identify the clients value system. This workshop offers an opportunity to facilitate the project team, understand their dynamics and guide them to achieve the desired goal. Though it is expected that the workshop has an agenda, this should not be too detailed, thereby making the timings tight, as this may rollick the focus from achieving the objectives of the workshop to exhausting the items on the agenda. The tactical skills of the Facilitator are very much needed at this stage of the workshop if its participants are to be generative and should be as brief and focused as pos

What Is Cyber Forensic Information Technology Essay

What Is Cyber Forensic Information Technology EssayCyber forensics is the process of acquisition, authentication, analysis and documentation of tell retrieved from the dusts or online applyd to commit the abhorrence. The systems could be from computing devices, interlockings, digital media or storage devices that could contain valuable data for the investigators to examine. From online, it could be from e-commerce domains or another(prenominal) websites. In cyber forensics, file or data carving techniques atomic number 18 most commonly gived to extract digital enjoin from the source unvoiced drive or online domain (Ibrahim, 2011, p. 137). ready reckoner forensics is important not honest because it does recover files hidden or deleted away from storage devices and systems but it can also tell forensics experts whether be there whatever suspicious activities going on or had the systems been tampered with. Computer forensics had helped solved the issue of recovering in formation from files where file system is unavailable or file system structure is corrupted. Files may be intentionally deleted or worse formatted to the interest of the suspect to conceal his actions. In todays new-made era where technology plays a come unwrap in almost all the electronic devices, it is important to know when required, how a trained forensics specialist can perform up to stomachation, in collecting and symbolize his assure purposes to corresponding agencies (Ibrahim, 2011, p.138).History of Cyber ForensicsThe uprise of cyber forensics started as early as 1984, in response to the growing demand from law enforcement agencies alike(p) FBI (John, 2003, p. 366). However digital forensics has been around as early as nearly the first birth of computer (Greg, 2012, p. 1). Since 1980s, forensics applications are developed by relevant law enforcement agencies to examine computer say. Due to forensics growing motivations, FBI set up pushchair also kn protest as Com puter Analysis and Response Team. CART was tasked with the subroutine of analysing computer attest. CART functions and techniques were so greatly used and performance by them was so great other law enforcement agencies outside the country quickly emulated them by establishing the same cyber forensics small-arm (John, 2003, p. 366).Examinations of forensics evidence are normally held in forensics laboratories or clean rooms by computer forensics investigators. A good and knowledgeable forensics expert is best favorite(a) to be in the process of examination, as it is always vital to perverse the integrity of the data and not destroy it. M both forensics experts produce their own standards and procedures on how computer forensics examinations are conducted which can be a big issue. Having double standards could jeopardize the integrity, creditably and boldness of the digital evidence which could result in somber implications along the way. Therefore, as early as 1991, suggest ions were made to streamline and standardise the examination processes and protocols had been raised. The purpose was to smoothen out rough edges approach used in evidence finding. Eventually, all these led to the formation of International Organization on Computer narrate and Scientific Working Group on Digital indicate (SWGDE). It became a worldwide effort to help law enforcement agencies around the globe to institute together much closely with regards to forensics examinations (John, 2003, p. 366).Over the years as modern technology advances, so have the deplorable activities on the Net, using these technologies. Crimes not only doubled with the advance of technology but carryed no sign of slow down down with the current situation. Criminals cracked their brains how to bypass security flaws in the systems while security teams brainstormed on how to improve security systems to keep criminals off. Billions of dollars were lost to cyber criminal offence which part of it went into criminal pockets and fund il statutory activities. It bequeath always be a cop and thief game to see who stepped up to the task of stopping each other from doing crime on the meshing first (John, 2003, p. 367).What is Digital Evidence?Digital evidence is evidence in the form of soft copy but not profoundcopy as the term suggested so. It can be in any type of data format, it can be part of texts, images, audio or video. Digital evidence is not quite similar to physical crime evidence. Evidence from physical crime ikon is durable to a certain extent, it can be unploughed and took down with camera and explained. However, this is not the grapheme for digital evidence, any wrong move to examine the evidence top executive alter or destroy the evidence without able to roll buns (Eoghan, 2011, p. 7).Digital evidence is so fragile, it can be easily damaged, modified or destroyed purposely. That is why most of the time, authoritative evidence are ofttimes duplicated and analysis is carried out on the duplicated copy to prevent any mishap of damaging the original copy. Scope of digital evidence examination can be very broad, it can be either online or offline. Examples of them are credit card transactions, Internet communications history, hard drives and other storage devices (Barry, William, Catherine, 2009, p. 295). Digital evidence is very critical to an investigating because the information on the evidence can tell the investigator what really happened and pieced together the whole picture. Forensics experts are looking for any form of metadata, suspicious content and other data residing in the hard drive. Every single click by the user on the computer was recorded by the system and a trained forensics expert can tell from one look what types of activity and desire the user was busy in. infract than anyone else. The recorded logs act like a behavioural database documenting every single movement on the laptop used by anyone (Eoghan, 2003, p. 8).The con sequences will be unthinkable in this revolution age of technology, if digital evidence is not available. It means criminals, terrorists and law breaking offenders are using technology to commit their cybercrimes and overturn apprehension due to the lack of evidence, or worst, bring arresting those using legal means to a whole new level for law enforcement agencies. If this is the case, it will mean these criminals will get away scot-free. Digital evidence can tell judges or investigators the loyalty, it can also prove ones innocent in a crime. Digital evidence speaks the truth. Digital evidence can also unveil a bigger crime plot in the making, like murder, medicate dealing, credit card theft, or planned terrorist attacksHowever, sometimes forensics expert can meet their match, people who are technically knowledgeable in forensics and know how to encompass their tracks. This will make uncovering ones track of dirty doing to a greater extent tedious and difficult. (Eoghan Casey, p. 6 8)Evidence PreservationThe very first step of starting an investigation on the crime scene itself is to preserve the digital evidence in the way itself. It is a critical step because of the fragility of digital evidence and procedures are needed to be in placed to avoid contamination or loss of the evidence. Contamination can also mean altering, damaging or destroying the digital evidence. It is important to minimise any chances of corrupting the digital evidence at the point of seizure and whole of the investigation process (Boddington, 2011, p. 4).There are methods and techniques out there to aid fellow forensics experts to prevent digital evidence from macrocosm unintentionally tampered with. Experts can utilise method such as imagery and Write-block. imaging is equivalent to ghosting a backup copy of the whole computer hard drive (evidence) into a soft copy. So investigators hit on the ghosted copy of the hard drive and the original hard drive is kept one side. In any case, if the ghosted copy is corrupted investigators can pull out the original hard drive and create another copy to work on. Write-block is another good way to prevent original evidence being alter. The evidence media is connected with a special machine that can prevent any attempt to overwrite the data on the device. Thus, the evidence on the hard drive cannot be altered as any attempt to write on the media had been blocked by the special machine (Barry, William, Catherine, 2009, p. 301).The reason behind preservation of digital evidence is simple. When submitting digital evidence for documentations or legal purposes in any court or legal department, legitimate proof is required to show subdue findings on the investigation. It had to show the same as the exhibit seized at the crime scene. This phenomenon is also commonly known as chain of grasp. For example, in a cyber-forensics crime environment, such exhibits would be media storage devices, a copy of digital evidence from th e hard disk seized and so on (Boddington, 2011, p. 5). Chain of cargo area basically is a map that understandably depicts the process of how digital evidence were processed collected, analysed and preserved in order to be presented as digital evidence in court. A chain of custody will also be needed to showcase whether the evidence is trustworthy or not. To meet all the requirements for chain of custody, three criteria are essential. Firstly, no innovation must be through to the evidence from the day of seizure. Secondly, a duplicate copy needed to be created and it had to be functional not corrupted. Lastly, all evidence and media are secured. Able to provide this chain of custody is unbroken is an investigator primary tool in authenticating all the electronic evidence (John, 2005, p. 247).If the chain of custody is broken, digital evidence collected from the scene submitted to the court can be denied as the evidence might had been altered and might not tell the truth of the evid ence. This is a prosecutor worst nightmare. In any situation, chain of custody is best followed to prove that evidence does not get contaminated and stayed in original state. However, there are occasions where collecting evidence without altering the data is not possible, especially when forensics tools were used. Such act will prove to be a serious implication to justify the evidence is intact and submission of such evidence will be challenged by the opposing team (Boddington, 2011, p. 6).Locate EvidenceOnce preserving the evidences is done, its time to locate relevant evidence that can make a difference in the legal battle (Boddington, 2011, p. 8). The general first obtain of thumb when locating the evidence is do not rush, as one is eager to get the investigation started, wants to find as many evidences as possible. However, the more one rushes the more mistakes the one is likely to make. Rushing into an investigation can have dire consequences, consequences like causing evidenc e to be lost prematurely or altered unintentionally (John, 2005, p. 249).Besides locating evidence, investigators must also maintain high integrity and reliability of the digital evidence, doing so, will minimise metadata being altered and destruction of important evidence (John Rudolph, 2010, p. 126). Digital evidence can be in any file format email, notepad or video or it can have no file format due to the fact that it had been encrypted. Forensics experts need to browse by thousands of files in the computer system or network to spot and collect suspicious files. Forensics experts are trained and taught to focus on area of interests within the system. Examples of such areas are like Recycle bin, Windows Registry and Internet Temp Folder. Focusing on these areas saved tremendous hours of searching. These areas will tell the investigators what took had happened and who did it (Boddington, 2011, p. 8). To examine such a wide range of file types after pickings consideration the ar ea of interests. The process of examination gets whole lot tougher and tedious. Investigators will bring in tools to help facilitate them with locating and collecting of the evidence. Forensics experts often use tools like OSforensics, XYR tools, Quick Stego or other sophiscated toolkits to aid them in the finding. All these tools will help investigators to decide whether they are looking at the correct areas or not and whether did they missed out anything important. Such equipment not only uncovers hidden or deleted files, it can also reveal the importance of the file whether it is relevant to the case or not (John, 2005, p. 249).Select and AnalyseSelecting evidence is often referred to the same meaning as analysing the evidence. Select and analyse the evidence that is going to be part of a legal lawsuit. Investigators do not just select all evidences and submit for lawsuit. Things like attribution and documents authentication played a part in the selecting of evidence. Suspects ca n lie but not the evidence. Attributing a crime to an individual is hard but with the help of forensics analysis, investigators can narrow down to an Internet key out or User account that had been used to commit the crime. For instance, access to e-commerce domains makes it difficult for suspects to deny responsibility for the activities he did using the computer around the time reported. Alternatively, sources like credit card usage, CCTV footage or mobile phone messages can be used against him as well. Selecting evidence found across the hard drive to be used on suspect is tedious work as it got to match perfectly with the time of his illegal act, creating a timeline with it (Eoghan, 2009, p. 27).Checking of metadata on documents for authentication may be like a small properties of the file but it capture one of the most important aspect of forensics evidence. From the metadata, investigators are able to see when the file was created, coating accessed and last modified. Using o f date-time stamp on files and logs file will be able to determine whether documents that are documented falsely or fabricated by looking into consistencies in log files. These methods will help investigators to authenticate the validity of the digital evidence (Eoghan, 2009, p. 31).Meticulously selecting and analysing the evidence found in the crime scene will help piece together the whole timeline of the act. Investigators might be able to tell from it the motive and intention of the suspect. Using evidence across the crime scene and cross referencing it accurately will piece together a series of event that can help to locate the suspect and prove his crimes. However, in the same situation doing it wrongly might twist the fact from fiction and caused inaccurate judgement on the crime (Eoghan, 2009, p. 21 23).Evidence ValidationInvestigators need to have the confidence to draw inference from evidence picked up from the crime itself, whether can it be used in a legal argument or no t. Validating digital evidence requires verification of relevant parts of the digital domain where the evidence is created, processed and transferred, including the evidence file itself. No doubt that the gambol of an investigator is tough, preserve, locate and validate digital evidence, however, legal practitioners have greater challenge, to construct logical legal arguments (Boddington, R., Hobbs, V.J. Mann, G, 2008, p. 3 5). Task of the investigator is to determine the credibly, validity and namely if the claim drawn from the evidence can be verified. For example, the assertion that an important word document was deleted would require confirmation of the existence of the deleted file through forensics tools. Incomplete or improper scanning of the available digital evidence during validation process of the investigate might jeopardise the evidence and people fill in the crime. In a more dire case, investigation can come to a halt and come to a standstill. (Boddington, R., Hobb s, V.J. Mann, G, 2008, p. 7- 10).In some cases, investigators might missed out key piece of digital evidence and resort to cherry- picking when selecting or discarding evidence to gain an upper hand in legal battle sometimes an absence of evidence of evidence does not necessarily show evidence of absence a phenomenon of the digital domain. To sum up how evidence is validate and presented in legal suit, its all up to the skill and knowledge of the investigators accumulated all of the years (Boddington, R., Hobbs, V.J. Mann, G, 2008, p. 14).Evidence PresentationHaving selected and validated the digital evidence, the close step is to present the evidence found in an orderly manner in court (Boddington, 2011, p. 14). The digital evidence submitted can be in any format. It can be photo, CCTV footage, video or word processed document. Through digital presentation, it enables the case to be heard in court in a way such that it is faster and easier for the jury to judge and digest the i nformation (The Stationery Office, 2007, p. 48). The fundamental in a courtroom is to administer justice and go a fair verdict. The role of investigators is to present digital evidence found and other relevant supporting documents to the court. It is always an investigator duty to present the evidence in an accurately, clear and non-bias view to the court. This is a rightful thing as a investigator should do. An investigator judgement must not be agitate by others in court and must not jump to conclusion, giving a clear and proper presentation. It is investigator professionalism by doing so. (Eoghan, 2011, p. 49)Forensics ToolsForensics tools played an important role in digital forensics, without the use of such high tech software in this modern era it will put digital investigation back into primitive age. They had been developed for a single purpose in the past to aid forensics experts in the investigations of digital crime. They can be classified into three categories Imaging T ools, Analysis Tools and Forensics toolkits (Panagiotis, 2006, p. 62).The sole purpose of the imaging tools is to image a hard drive, making a bit-by-bit copy. This bit-by-bit copy image file is often known as the analysis drive. During this process of creating a copy of the suspects hard drive, it is important that no additional data was inserted. It will alter not just the integrity and the validity of the evidence resided in the hard drive. Out in the open market, there are a few trustworthy and easy to use imaging tools developed for forensics examinations. One of them is Norton Ghost. Symantecs Norton Ghost 9.0 has been out in the market for quite some time. It is a backup and restoration utility that can work on Windows, Linux and DOS systems. Its prominent function featured the creation of backup images without having to restart the system. Other features of Norton Ghost include Ghost Server, cloning back a machine with the image created earlier on. It also featured Ghost Exp lorer. This function allows creator to view the files inside the image where the hard drive was cloned (Panagiotis, 2006, p. 63). Tools that fall into analysis category have a wide range. Tools like Quick Stego and DriveSpy are good examples of analysis tools. DriveSpy was designed to emulate and improve the capabilities of DOS to meet the demand of forensics examinations. It can be used to analyse DOS and non-DOS partition using a built in sector hex viewer (Panagiotis, 2006, p. 63 64). bundle like Quick Stego detects hidden text message inside a larger message. Such text is not available through the naked nerve of a human it requires software like quick stego, which can detect it. The term for detecting hidden text is known as stenography. The hidden information can be in plain texts or images. This technique is often useful for hiding particular messages not wanted to be seen by people, expect those who know they are receiving information embedded with stenography. Quick stego is simple and easy to use software. It helps forensics experts to dig deeper into the system with the help of it, it might lead to uncover a bigger plot not yet found by the investigators (Lech Andrew, 2008, p. 60). Forensics tools can make a difference for forensics experts. It helped forensics experts to better analysis the system and gather more evidence. In another words, it is like post mortem forensics. Tools like OSforensics and ProDiscoverTools have the ability to do, it gives the investigator the ability and capability to process recent activity and logs of the system to better understand the suspect movements. It also features the capability to recover deleted file and discover delete activities, intended to report from the examiner. Besides the features mentioned, both tools had other functions like email analysis or index search analysis, which give a more straightforward and easier format to understand (Lech Andrew, 2008, p. 61 65).Hypothesis and alternative hypoth esesAfter finding evidences in a crime scene, investigators might have their own dead reckoning that fit the crime. Many predictions may follow through, forming other hypotheses, some are correct to a certain extent while others are wrong. Part of the forensics experts is to figure out which hypothesis is the right one by eliminating the others. Success of the analysis lies on how carefully and thoroughly the hypothesis is being questioned. Therefore, it is critical to consider other reasons and explanations to cross out wrong hypotheses. Once all the hypotheses had been reviewed and only one of them have been established as the most reasonable, fit closest to the series of event relating to the crime according to evidence found and timeline. Investigators can then convey their work to decision makers to make their final decision (Eoghan, 2009, p. 24). On occasions, if initial hypothesis had been disapproved, a new one must be formed and analysed until one hypothesis is found to be concreted and able to withstand questions asked by the court. This is to ensure hypothesis gets it full support from the evidence themselves and able to tell the story of the real crime (John, 2005, p. 66).ConclusionCyber crime is evolving from day to day and it is getting more and more sophiscated. Criminals are using more and more innovating and creative ways to commit crimes and hide their tracks. Measures and policies were in placed to prevent from bypassing the system flaws from causing impact to the businesses and the societies (John, 2005, p. 182). The demand for forensics examination on crime systems had surged greatly in the 21st century, where technology plays a part in all electronic devices. It has helped law enforcement agencies in the identification of cyber and computer-assisted crime. Organisations are stressing the importance on the need to have capabilities and abilities using computer forensics tools to spot misuse of organisation systems in the office (Greg, 20 12, p. 6).Computer forensics was initially designed and developed to assist in the practical application of the technology. However, in the recent years, it effervesce off a new sensation in academic research, exploring new ways to better obtain forensic evidence, every new research done is a new insight gained by the investigators. However, as technology advances, so have the criminals, law enforcement agencies, organisations and indivulas needs to know basic protection measures to safeguard their own asset from falling into the wrong hands. (Nathan Clarke, 2010, p58)

The job of my dreams Essay -- essays research papers

My Job Now and The Job of My DreamsWho doesnt want the perfect job? Most people who ar not happy at their current jobs are usually looking for somewhatthing better. Some people look for better hours, environment, or maybe just a substantial raise. Where there are advantages in jobs, there is usually going to be at least one small disadvantage. Weighing out the options can help people book the right choices. Although we would all like to pull in the job of our dreams, unfortunately, it only happens to a few of us.My present job consists of customer service, daily paperwork, as well as opening and closing the store. My employer keeps us quite busy all day long. The hardest part of my job is customer service. No matter how hard I try, some people simply cannot be pleased. This can be very frustrating for me, especially since making my customer happy is my first priority. Even though we have some difficult customers, most of my clientele are very nice. When we work in retail, we al so have to deal with the long and crazy hours. Since I compressed most nights, I am at work when most people are going to bed. This can be a huge disadvantage, especially if mortal has a family with small children. Even though I dont have children, I do not get to spend as a lot time as I would like to with my husband. He has been a very patient and kind man with the hours I work and study. Along with the disadvantages of my job, there are also some ...